Innovation is the HVAC field - Thermoelectric cooling components Research Paper

Innovation is the HVAC field - Thermoelectric cooling components - Research Paper Example The technology has since been used to cool temperatures of devices by creating heat sinks for different electronic materials. The most recent applications of this type of technology are the â€Å"wristify† cooling system invented by four MIT students. The â€Å"wristify† is used for maintaining the body temperature at a personal level. This they managed through the use of two different conductors and a very small battery. In order for the cooling to take place, the then a DC current is applied so as to initiate the movement of electrons. The efficiency in thermo-electric cooling, depends on materials be selected keenly. Many thermo-electric coolers made today are from an alloy of Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3). Thermo-electric cooling poses very advantages like lack of mechanical maintenance and ability to be used in very small places. The technology has a place in the future since there is a possible use of the technology in marine engineering of submarines, night vision a nd many more others. Prototype wearable 'air-conditioning' device According to fox news, In the MIT, four engineering students have been able to develop a wrist worn body cooling device that is based upon the Peltier Effect and theory. The device code named wristify employs a series of two different conductors that are referred to as the Peltier cooler. The device is powered a very small battery and then attached to a wrist wrap so as to hold it in place. For the device to reduce the body temperature, it starts by reducing the wrist temperature in degree fractions every second for a specified time period. However, the students have not arrived at the correct time calculations, but they say that a reasonable cooling effect is achieved when the wrist is cooled by 0.4 degrees Celsius for five seconds. After this session, the device goes off for 10 seconds and maintains the interval. However, the four students are still on the process of calculating for optimal timings so as to perfect the device. The Wristify is one of the major breakthrough in human attempt to thermo-electric cooling (Balmer, 2011). With this device, a different person will be able to customize their own temperature ranges without affecting others. This is an aspect that many will appreciate. This rate of success is a sign that with the rise in advance technology and availability of resources, thermo-electric cooling can be utilized in areas that people had never imagined before. Thermo-electric cooling Definition Thermo-electric cooling refers to an application of the Peltier Effect to create a difference in temperature between two materials of different type. A thermo-electric cooler is usually a solid stated active that is able to transfer heat from one side of a device to the other. This is possible based on the following physical theories. First, when two different conductors are under electric contact, there is an electron flow out of the conductor that is less bound into the other conductor in which electrons are more. This is possible because of the dif ference in Fermi level between the two devices used as conductors. The Fermi level shows the difference in energy levels that are contained in different conductors occupied by electrons, and those that are not occupied. Therefore, when two conductors of different Fermi levels. This can be easily compared to diffusion in which molecules move from an area of high concentration to that of low concentration. How it works In order for the cooling to take

GLOBAL BUSINESS CONTEXT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

GLOBAL BUSINESS CONTEXT - Essay Example Airline Industry remains a most important figure at global level as it is providing different services at the same time. We found its first origination in 1909, and since then the structure of this industry changes over time showing a regular boosting and improvement. The structure of airline sector compromises of passenger services and freight services. On the other hand, its services are categorized as intra-continental, inter-continental, domestic services, operated or scheduled services and charter services1. The airline industry includes different sectors that together give rise to a complete Airline Sector. These sectors are Airbus, Jumbo Jets, Boeings and other small jets. The airlines deal with different services and among them passenger services and freight are the most common and most important services. Though, it was 1909 when the first airline craft was introduced by the Germany but this wasn't the most important figure. The actual industry starts when the airbus discovery took place. But before that, in 1914 the very first commercial flight in the US starts but this remain the only service till 1925 when the ford introduces their commercial flight holding 12-passengers capacity. At the same time the US decided to operate at global level and by 1930, the introduction of Boeing was made2. But till this time, the airline sector did not show any good performance and enhancement. Actual chronicle belongs to the year 1970 when European consortium (Germany, France, Great Britain and Spain become the member later after few years) started an airbus Industry. The objectives of the goals behind this industry were to create commercial aircraft with Germany, Great Britain and Spain. Where as, within the consortium France play the role of assembling. The logic behind this was to give a growth to international travelling. As, the need and demand for the international travelling increases in that era, the airbus industry play an important role in Airline sector3. The industry employee more than 57,000 people and are working in sixteen regions. The Airbus Industry has its subsidiaries in United States, China and Japan due to the reason that these countries are ranked top in the most advance technological growth. The Airbus was named by the airline industry due to its specific size and range. Airbus includes different types of Jets and planes namely as Aerospatiale, Deutsche airbus, Hawker Siddeley and Fokker. Within the airbus industry, Aerospatiale and Deutsche took 36.5% of share according to production; Hawker took 20% and Fokker as 7%. During the year 1971 in October the Spanish company CASA acquired 4.2% of the share of Airbus Industry. Than later in the years different changes took place including the British acquisition of British Aerospace and acquired 20% of the s hare. This impacted on the share of shareholders which reduces to 37.9%. Initially the growth of consortium was poor by 1979 much of the improvements take place and among them was the services of 81 aircrafts or airbuses. It was 1981, when the launch of A320

Models of Policy Making

Models of Policy Making I think the whether policy process is incremental or non-incremental depends on different situation. (I think the reality is much more complicated than any theory, in order to reduce the complexity of this question we can use different theory models.) Before we discuss whether the nature of the policy process is incremental or non-incremental, we should first think what is an incremental model of policy and what is a non-incremental model of policy process, and we should also think about both the advantages and disadvantages of these models. There are three different models here: the rationality (bounded rationality) model, the incrementalism model and the garbage can model. Bounded Rationality Model In Simons bounded rationality model, the rationality is conditioned. The actual process of social activities is affected by intuition, experience, accuracy of information and value judgments. Pure objective and rational decision-making model is only a hypothesis model, it doesnt exist in reality. In the bounded rationality model, the decision maker should distinguish fact from value and preferences; and he shouldnt replace the value with the fact; also, the decision maker should distinguish method from goal In fact, the government has only limited policy options and decision-maker can only do limited cost-benefit analysis. The information, material resources, political support and time of the policy are all limited; therefore, the policy choice has been limited. According to this situation, the assessment criteria of the policy are not whether this policy is optimal or not, the criteria of the policy are whether it is satisfying and second best or not. Simons theory doesnt say that t he decision makers cant make any non-incremental progress, however it tells us that the decision making process are limited by information and power. If the policy maker can have enough material support, political support, information and enough time then they can make some non-incremental process; if all these factors are very limited then it is highly unlikely for them to make a very no-incremental policy process. Incrementalism model Lindbloms incrementalism model emphasizes that the policy process is an ongoing process. Decision-making process is largely based on decision-makers past experience with some slight modifications of existing policy. This is an incremental process, and the changes within this process seemed to be slow, but the small changes may lead into some great changes, the actual speed of changing is often greater than we thought. However, a drastic policy change from policy A to the next policy A1 is not only unfeasible but also undesirable; a drastic change may threat social stability and will cause policy disruptions. In his view, the decision-making and policy-making process are bounded to political factor, technical factor, and they are also constrained by existing policies. And all these constrain have determined that the decision-making process is incremental. Garbage can model Garbage can model is carried out by Marche and Olsen. They believe there is inherently irrational factor within in the decision-making process, and sometime there is limited rationality in the incremental process. They argue that policymakers policy targets and solutions are often not very clear. In the policy process, the policy making organizations are facing lots of potential policy solutions, policy programs, policy participants and policy opportunities. And these factors were thrown into a policy garbage can and they are mixed together. The policy is what the policy maker finally picks out from the can. The garbage can model tried to expand organizational decision theory into the then uncharted field of organizational anarchy which is characterized by problematic preferences, unclear technology and fluid participation. There are four of those streams were identified in the model: Problem (requires attention), Solutions (has it own life.), Opportunities, Participants (not stable). They are independent of each other and there is no causal link. The theoretical breakthrough of the garbage can model is that it disconnects problems, solutions and decision makers from each other, unlike traditional decision theory. Some opportunities may cycle and some may never return. When o pportunities arise, problems, solutions and participants will across and the four streams may converge. If problems and solutions are matched during this period then the problem is resolved. If they dont match, then they will wait for another decision-making opportunity. Specific decisions do not follow an orderly process from problem to solution, but are outcomes of several relatively independent streams of events within the organization. Under normal circumstances, policy makers are using his default preference with his to discovered the right questions. Garbage can model has some advantages: on the one hand, it can explain why the bureaucracy is often inefficient. Using this model, we can understand that bureaucrats often lack the incentive to push reform; therefore, public policy process tends to change slowly. On the other hand this model shows that opportunities, human creativity and choice still have some space in policy process and some dramatic change can happened through a non-incremental random way. Kingdon creates the multiple stream models from the garbage can model to explain why there are major shifts in the agenda, and why these changes could be non- incremental change to existing policy. Kingdons model identifies three streams in the system: problems, policies, and politics. Each stream is flowing during the policy process. And each is stream is independent from others, and each stream has its own dynamics and rules. However, in a critical time point all these streams will merge into one single package. Usually, a focusing issue will bring this critical time point, also the change of political structure will also bring the critical time point to the policy entrepreneurs. And the policy entrepreneur will use this package to promote their policy solution. If the solution of the issue has been received by the policy makers, then there will be even a dramatic change within the policy process. As I discussed above, Lindbloms incrementalism model can work goo in a stable situation. However, it has some limitations and inadequacies. Firstly, it is a conservative approach; it is generally suitable for relatively stable environment. In order to make the policy process work well, the former policy should be good. However, once the social conditions and the environment changed dramatically, the incremental decision-making model may not work well. History has shown that certain moment in social development requires substantial policy adjustments, and sometimes it is even necessary for the policy makers to abandon former policy. In these situations, the incremental method could be useless or even has some negative effects. In these cases, I think the bounded rationality policy model can work better. Because in this model, policy maker can make new policy by using limited information through careful calculations. Although in the bounded rationality model, the first trial of new pol icy is not perfect, but it can provide a useful base for further improvement for next incremental process or at least it can provide a potential policy alternative for the garbage can. At some degree, I think the incrementalism approach and the garbage can approach are method directed which means these two policy process dont require a certain policy goal; while the bounded rationality approach is goal directed which means there is a certain goal. In conclusion, I think whether policy process is incremental or non-incremental should depend on different situations. Also, in order to discuss whether a policy process is incremental or non-incremental we should limit the time span of the policy process. The incremental process works better in a stable environment and it does not require a clear policy goal; if the policy process is theoretically limited within a short policy period, then there will be no major changes. The non-incremental process may work better in a rapid changing situation. The bounded rationality model shows that the policy makers could make useful policy with limited information and resources. 5) Some criticize policy theories for being better at explaining policy stability than policy change. Evaluate this claim with respect to some leading thinkers from our course. No, I think there are some theories can explain policy change as well as policy stability. Here are some theories which can be used to explain policy changes: Punctuated Equilibrium Theory and Policy Change Punctuated Equilibrium Theory attempts to describe the progressive policy changes and significant change. When the policy issues are addressed by the political sub-system, we usually can observe the existence of incremental changes; conversely, when dealing with policy issues to be raised to the macro political system, there may be a significant policy change, and we often observe a major policy change (True, Jones, and Baumgartner, 1999:102). In the process of policy change, the policy entrepreneur is trying to change recognized/accepted ideas of the public (Baumgartner and Jones, 1993:42). Although the Punctuated Equilibrium Theory has pointed out when the image of the existing policy is challenged the opportunities will be created, but the theory hasnt tell why policies will be challenged. We can observe a policy change when there are new way of policy thinking, a mobilization of new policy supporters and a institutional change within the policy structure. Whether these factors appear together or they appear alone will make policy maker change their former incremental and stable policy process at different degrees. These factors will punctuate the equilibrium of policy stable developing process; and these factors will bring turbulent and unstable policy process. The definitions of policy issue, the boundary of policy problem, the agenda setting of policy are the key factors in policy process. Different interpretation of policy issue will also reinforce policy supports or bring doubts to existing policy. The model emphasizes policy change is punctuated equilibrium, the change is motivated by a complex combination of internal and external factors. Advocacy Coalition Framework and Policy Change Advocacy Coalition Framework was first proposed by Sabatier (1988). Sabatier suggests that we should focus on the interaction of the policy advocacy. Sabatier suggests that within the coalition those members share the mutual belief in a set of policy beliefs. Based on this hypothesis, policy change can be understood as a function of the relationship between the competing advocacy coalition and outside factors (Sabatier, 1999:9; Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith, 1993:5). The policy change is a result of advocacy coalitions competition, interaction of beliefs and outside factors. Advocacy Coalition Framework shows that belief system can be divided into three levels, deep core, policy core beliefs and secondary aspects. Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith (1999:147) pointed out that major changes in a policy actually is a change of core beliefs, while a smaller change of policy reflects changes in the policy beliefs or the secondary beliefs . Basically, deep core values are fixed, and it is more like an exogenous variables; policy core beliefs are formed and it serve as advocacys adhesives, it often take a decade or more time to change, and it can be considered as part of the endogenous variable. Substantial policy change is the result of the changes in policy beliefs. And the changes in secondary level will lead to small, incremental policy change (Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith, 1999: 131). Also policy Change is divided into two types: incremental policy changes and significant policy changes. Incremental change can be the result of policy learning. Because the goal of policy learning is not to shake the foundation of core beliefs, therefore there will not be major policy changes (Sabatier, 1988:149; Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith, 1999:123). And the leaning process is often used to reinforce and support the policy belief and core belief. Another way to think of the learning process Subject of Learning Object of Learning Consequence Governmental Govt Officials Intelligent policy process Institutional Change Experimental Policy Network Methodology New Policy Solution Societal Policy Community Idea and Concept Shifting Paradigm However, if the core belief is shaken, then the advocacy coalition may collapse. Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith (1999:147-49) pointed out that the cause for major policy changes include: changes in socio-economic conditions, changes in governance system, etc Multiple Streams Model and Policy Change Multiple Streams Model is developed based on the garbage can mode (Cohen, March and Olsen (1972). Multiple Streams Model is proposed in 1984 by Kingdon. According to this model, when policy maker are facing uncertainty and time pressure, the most concerned issue for them is the time point rather than rational or optimal output. From this perspective, the key point for policy change is the right time point. If policy maker can grasp the key time point, then he can make some policy changes. Multiple Streams Model indicates that the policy process consists three processes/streams; and these processes are made by different actors: the first problem streams includes different information and solutions proposed by their supporters; the second policy streams includes government officials concern of policy alternatives and policy formation; the third politics stream includes political consideration by the elected officials and elected representatives (Sabatier, 1999:9). These three processes flow inside and outside the federal government, and each is an individual process operation for most of the time, they are unrelated to each other (Kingdon, 1994:216). In a crucial time point, policy entrepreneur will combine the various processes (coupling into a single package, and it will greatly enhance a policy issue attention and even create a policy opportunity) (Zahariadis, 1999:73). And in this critical point, policy window will be opened. Kingdon (1994:216) has described, when the policy window open, a policy issue will come out. Some policy solutions which can be used to address the policy issues have already existed, and the time for this policy is correct. Policy window is an opportunity to promote a particular policy program, they will appear by themselves, but it is a very short time for people to notice and use this opportunity (Kingdon, 2003:166). Kingdon (2003:168) further pointed out that under the Multiple Streams Model, policy window may flow from the political stream or problems stream. If the policy window is opened for political reasons, it is because of president changed, there are changes of the administrating party, there is change in congress, etc If the policy window is opened from the policy stream, it is mostly because some issues have caught the attention of government officials. Whether policy makers are seeking solutions to promote existing policies or seeking alternatives to replace existing policies, the policy maker will always provide some opportunities for policy advocators to sell their policies. This means that as long as those policy advocators can make policy makers believe that their program is a feasible option to address policy issues or their solutions can help to accumulate political prestige and resources of the new policies; sooner or later, their policy proposals will have the chance to enter the policy agenda. It is possible for these proposals to be legitimized and carried out as the governments policy (Kingdon, 2003:172). Zahariadis (1999:82) argues that, if the policy window is opened in the political stream, then the combination of the various processes are more likely to be doctrinal. It is an existing policy to help find solutions to solve policy issues. If the policy window is opened in the problem stream, then the combination of th e various processes are more likely to be consequential, that is a process for finding a viable solution. Kingdon (2003:94-95) also pointed out that the policy problems may not seem obvious to every person. Sometimes a problem is noticed because there is a focusing event which has provided it with a policy window. Kingdon (2003:97) the focus of the event will be made as symbol in political world; and a symbol will draw attention and strengthen the role for certain issues. In conclusion, I think from a philosophic aspect the theories of policy stability and theories of policy changes are the two sides of the same coin. Also, I think the relationship between different theories is not only completive but sometime different theories are complementary to each others. I think the problem for some policy scholars is that they often focused on one theory instead of looking for different explanations from different theories 4) Deborah Stone calls the struggle over ideas the essence of policy making. Discuss this claim with respect to leading theories of the policy process. I name my answer to question as Idea and Deborah Stone, I want go through her book and explain why ideas are so important. According to Deborah Stone, idea will help people to define alliance, strategic considerations also idea will help people to get the legitimacy and draw policy boundaries. (Deborah, P 34). According to Deborah Stone, idea will decide who will be affected, how will they be affected and will they be affected legitimately (Deborah, P.34). In the first Chapter, Stone starts her analysis at the city-state (the Greek term polis) level. The public policy is considered as an attempt to achieve a certain community goals (Deborah, P 21). However, due to the fact that everyone has his own understanding of ideas, therefore the political community has become a place for internal debates over who will be affected, how will they be affected and will they be affected legitimately(Deborah, P 34) . The policy-making process has thus become a continuous interaction between the conflict and cooperation. In Stones model, individuals may pursue their goals through collective action. The motivation is not only based on self-interests but also based on public concerns. This is because the public interest is be related to the goal of survival (Deborah, P 33). However, when there is a contradiction between self-interest and public interest, the policy process will be more complicated (Deborah, P 33). When the group is motivated under common ideas, the group will get more strength, and there will be a balance between private interests and public interests in the conflict. Stone directly uses the idea as the core concept of this book. In her construction of polis community vs market individual(Deborah P 33) model, ideas have become the focus. Stone tries to use struggle of idea to explain all stages of policy-making process. Policy-making is followed by a continuous constantly struggle to fight for the classification of standards, types of boundaries, and guide people to conduct the ideal typical definition. The struggle of idea can be seen in several policy levels. According to Stones theory, idea defines what people want from the policy; it is the foundation for people to cognize and understands what the policy is. Idea provides a relationship between advocators and advocacy coalitions; Idea provides causal relationship for these people and groups, and ideas will be reflected to their policy objectives through their actions of obtaining support. And these people with the shared idea will persuade decision-makers to meet their preferences. As mentioned above, Stone sees idea as a constantly changing dynamic and resources of construction. And by given different interpretations of ideas, the concept of the ideas will also change. She points out that the politics of policy is to choose the interpretation (Deborah P 75). Stone argues that the authority to interpret idea is the key factor in the policy-making process. Only legitimated idea can be transformed into policy. And using the legiti macy, peoples knowledge or behavior can be changed. And policy change can also be made through this interaction of ideas. Ideas affects how people cognized politics, and the change of politics will also feedback on ideas. To Stone, idea is not static; idea is an ongoing of constructing and reconstructing process of concepts. Now I will try to exam whether Deborah Stones idea theory can fits with other policy process theory. In the punctuated equilibrium theory, Baumgartner and Jones also argue that idea is a potential power in the policy making process. According to their book Agendas and Instability in American Politics, a powerful supporting idea is associated with the institution (Baumgartner and Jones, P 7); In page 16, they also writethe tight connection between institution and idea provides powerful support for prevailing distribution of political advantage. These statements mean that idea will help people understand what is at stake and how will they be affected (Stone, 2002), policy advocators will use institution arrangement to make their idea be legitimate. Also, in order to gain more power those policy actors will manipulate images and ideas. To Baumgartner and Jones, ideas are important because they provide some potential undergirding institutional arrangements; and the struggle of idea is the struggle over legitimate institution arrangements. In the book Agendas, alternatives and public policies, Kingdon also discusses the importance. In order to make useful policy suggestions, participants in the policy process are competing to develop new ideas; and they are trying to provide their ideas in the form of potential solutions to policy makers. According to Kingdon, policy entrepreneurs lie in wait in and around government with their solutions [already] in hand, waiting for problems to float by to which they can attach their solutions, waiting for a development in the political stream they can use to their advantage (Kingdon, P 165). Shared ideas make policy entrepreneurs into alliance; and these alliances are trying to make their ideas become legitimate. Kingdons primal policy soup (Kingdon, P 139-143) model provides us a picture of how decision makers accept idea through coherent narrative process (ideas are flowing in the streams just as molecules flowing in the soup). According to Kingdon, a policy community creates a sh ort list of ideas. If the ideas can go through the selecting process, softening up process and if they can pass the exam by specialists and policy makers, they may finally become policies. The whole process can be viewed as a continuing struggle of ideas. In this case, ideas are not only competing with other ideas, they are also struggling to survive in this primal soup. I also think Kingdons policy window model is another improvement to Deborah Stones arguments. People are now struggling to make their idea in front of the policy window at the correct time. This model discovers that the during the policy process, critical time is also important for ideas struggling. However, I think there are also some theories which do not fully support Deborah Stones argument. In the garbage can model, because the nature of unclear, policy is not necessarily to be the consequence of the ideas struggling. In Kingdons Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, he describes that as garbage can into which various kinds of problems and solutions are dumped by participantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ removed from the scene (Kingdon, P 85). In some sense, Deborah Stones Struggling of ideas assumption is more based on a goal-oriented policy making process, in order to make it work, there should be a clear policy goal from all participants; while the classical garbage can model is more like a method-oriented policy making process, it doesnt require a clear goal or solution at the beginning. In the garbage can model, people are not fighting with each other over ideas in the final solution selecting stage, however it is still correct to say that each solution in the garbage can is a result of deliberative idea thinking. I think there is a slight difference between Deborah Stones theory and the garbage can model. Another policy theory which doesnt fully consistent with Deborah Stones theory is the incrementalism theory. According to Lindblom, the incremental policy process is more relied on former existing policies. According to this model, the policy environment generally remains stable. Because the incremental nature of the policy, the new policy will inherent the policy environment from previous policy, if the former policy has resolved the struggling of idea, then there will be less struggling of ideas in the new policies. Since the policy environment is stable, it will be unlikely for us to speculate a violently struggle over ideas. The last policy process theory I want discuss in the context of struggling over idea is the advocacy coalition framework (ACF) theory. The central idea of this theory is that people or groups with the same beliefs (core/policy/secondary) will form a coalition. I think Sabatiers concept of belief is similar to Deborah Stones concept of idea. Especially, I think the concept of policy belief is playing the role of idea in the policy process. I think his core belief is rooted even deeper than idea. The core belief will sometimes become unnoticeable. And using the ACF model, we can find out that the policy process is a competition among different policy beliefs, and I think this observation is close to Deborahs struggle over ideas the essence of policy making.'. But it does not mean that the change in the secondary belief level is also a result of struggling, according to Sabatiers theory, such change is more like the result of an incremental learning process. In conclusion, I think Deborah Stones argument is useful for us to understand some policy process. However, by using different theories we should also notice whether policy processes are struggle over ideas should be analyzed in situations. The Punctuated-Equilibrium model, ACF model and Multiple Stream model indicate that Deborahs argument is valid. In the P-E model, the change of existing idea or appearance of new idea will bring turbulence to the policy process; in the ACF model, the learning process can change beliefs at different level, and these changes will bring feedbacks to the policy process; in the M-S model, policy entrepreneurs will using the opportunity to propose their ideas, and when critical time is come, the coupled stream will become policy. Incremental Model suggests that policy process is not necessarily linked to struggling when the time span of the policy is very short. There could be no struggle when the whole policy process is already fixed. However, I think the origin/first policy in the incremental model is a result of idea struggling. The Garbage Can model suggests that the choosing process within the policy process may appear as a random process, it is not necessarily to be the consequence of the idea struggling. Reference: Sabatier, Paul A. 1988. An Advocacy Coalition Framework of Policy Change and the Role of Policy-Oriented Learning Therein, Policy Sciences, 21:129-168. Sabatier, Paul A. (ed.) 1999. Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Sabatier, Paul A. and Hank C. Jenkins-Smith. 1993. Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Sabatier, Paul A. and Hank C. Jenkins-Smith. 1999. The Advocacy Coalition Framework: An Assessment, In Sabatier, Paul A. (ed.) Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Kingdon, John W. 1995. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. 2nd ed., New York: HarperCollins. Zahariadis, Nikolaos. 1999. Ambiguity, Time, and Multiple Streams, In Sabatier, Paul A. (ed.), Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. True, James L., Bryan D.Jones, and Frank R. Baumgartner. 1999. Punctuated- Equilibrium Theory: Explaining Stability and Change in American Policymaking, In Sabatier, Paul A. (ed.), Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Jones, Bryan D., Frank R. Baumgartner, and James L. True 1998. Policy Punctuations: U.S. Budget Authority, 1947-1995, The Journal of Politics, 60(1):1-33. Baumgartner, Frank R. and Bryan D. Jones. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Reference: Kingdon, J. W. (1984) Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies . U. S. A.: Harper Collins. Lindblom, C. E. (1959) The science of muddling through. Public Administration Review, 14, pp. 79-88. Cohen, M., March, J., Olson, J. (1972) A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17, pp. 1-25. March, James and Olsen. (1984) The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factor in Political Life. American Political Science Review 78. 734-749

Motherly Love in Amy Tan’s Joy Luck Club Essay -- Joy Luck Club Essays

Motherly Love in Amy Tan’s Joy Luck Club A mother’s love for a daughter is an intense feeling; some times it can be very joyful or very painful.   Most mothers just want their daughters to have everything that they didn’t have, they try to give their daughter all their hopes and dreams.   The relationship between a mother and daughter should be one of the greatest relationships a woman can have with another woman. Some time a mother can push a daughter to hard, some mother don’t mean to make their daughter feel bad or to make them up-set, the mothers just want the daughter to have better then what they had.   A mother gives her daughter advice about everything in life.   â€Å"A Mother’s Advice to her Daughter.† â€Å"Be strong.   Be intelligent. Smile knows that beauty has everything to do with how you feel about yourself and nothing to do with looks or other people’s opinions.   Never do anything just because everyone else is if you believe it’s wrong.   Always be true to yourself.   Expect the best from life and that’s what you’ll get.   Learn from your mistakes and failures.   Believe in magic and wish on stars.   Love and trust and be compassionate.   Make faces.   Play in mud puddles.   Take bubbles baths.   Turn off all the lights and watch lightning storms.   Dance, laugh, cry, and sing when you want to.   Read everything you can get your hands on.   Stand up for what is right especially if you stand-alone.   Don’t allow yourself or people around you to tolerate prejudices of, any kind.   Don’t be afraid to at least once a week.   Run through snowdrifts.   Spin in circles and roll down hills.   Pet after noon naps.   Stay up to watch the sunrise.   Never apologize for being a woman or for being yourself.   Never forget that I Love you more than any ... ...omen, she did not want to look and see what her husband was doing.   Each marriage was not stable in any kind of way and some kind of household item was a sensible of their marriages. How each item broke too sensible that their marriage had fallen apart. The lives of eight Chinese women are told throughout the book The Joy Luck Club.   How their childhood was, their first marriage was and all their hopes and dreams that they wish to come true.   A mother’s love for a daughter can some be joyful or very painful.   In the case of these women all the mothers want was their daughter would not make the same mistakes that they did in the past, and for them to learn for those mistake.   That is the love for a daughter from her mother. A mother gives her daughter advice about everything in life. WORKS CITED    Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. New York: Random House, 1989.

Ancient Greek Deities and Their Human Characteristics Essay

The ancient Greek Gods and their myths have existed in the human imagination and spirit for as long as man has had the ability to pass down their fables. Since before the dawn of recorded events, when man was limited to oral communications, the people of ancient Greece recounted to each other and to succeeding generations a variety of myths and legends surrounding the everlasting anecdotes of these magnetizing heroes. Some of these stories were told for pure entertainment as shepherds would do to pass the time while tending to their flock. Others were etiological in nature, as renowned philosophers, such as Socrates and his prize student Plato, would discuss; debating their meaning or interpretation of life, love, and existence. There are even present day university courses being held in order to discuss the lives of these supernatural beings. These deities have been passed around for thousands of years, and have yet to cease capturing the interest of the human spirit. Man has always been fascinated by these great immortals and moreover by the stories surrounding them, and since universities based their coursework on the Latin and Greek, it was natural for psychoanalysis and medical diagnoses to create names from these fables. Their charm and allure is accentuated by their recognizable human attributes. Ancient Greek Gods, like man, have been known to love and lust, to be jealous and seek revenge, to be bitter and even petty, characteristics common to everyday man, making them memorable. The Greeks would relate the stories of these omnipotent entities who act capriciously, frivolously, and even immorally, making them unforgettable, their legends transcended time and culture. They were nothing like any deity known to man then or now. The ancient Greeks would seek haven and ask for forgiveness from these familiar sorts of Gods because the Gods understood the problems that plagued man. They assumed that if a mere mortal succumbs to the seduction of revenge, and seeks refuge in the Gods and Goddess, the Gods would have nothing but understanding since they themselves made the very same mistakes. The ancient Greeks began using the stories as an explanation for man’s eccentric and erratic behavior; using stories such as Pandora to explain evil in the world, and woman’s inherent curious nature. Though they lack the religious seriousness one might expect from a god, the sort of seriousness found in the Judeo-Christian’s image of God, they are nonetheless still omnipotent, in the eyes of ancient Greece. Of course the Judeo- Christians believed in one god, monotheism, while the ancient Greeks believed in many, polytheism. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, are three of the oldest, and most popular religions in the world today. The majority of the world’s view on how a deity would or should behave comes from these three faiths. These religions are monotheistic, believing in one and only one God. These religions are also considered to be Abrahamic, explained by the Encyclopedia Britannica to mean that all three identify with and emphasize that they trace their common origin back to Abraham, or recognize a spiritual tradition identified with him. The majority of the world’s population, 54% according to the ranking of the world religions by Preston Hunter (Hunter) identify with these religions, they believe in the scriptures brought down by their creator, and related back to them by a prophet, or in certain sects of Christianity, the Lord himself. In every one of these scriptures God is described as pure, divine, all knowing, all seeing, and moreover, unlike any human, God is not petty or jealous. His love for his creation is merely platonic, the way one might love a creation of his own. There is no gender; God is not male, nor female. In both Judaism and Islam, the word â€Å"God† is replaced by the genderless form â€Å"Allah† or â€Å"Ellah†, both meaning â€Å"The One†. He has no flaws, or errors, he does not mingle or mix with lessor beings, most of all he does not procreate with his creations. In some sects of Christianity, God has a son, Jesus, but even then it was defined as a conception like no other; from the womb of the Immaculate Conception (Mary, daughter of Amram) herself, and only to prove His existence and platonic love for His creations. â€Å"For God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have eternal life.† John 3:16. – King James Bible Islam and Judaism argue that He has no family, no sons (except a Trinity-form Jesus), no daughters, no mother, and no father. There is none that came before Him, and none shall come after him. He is the one and only creator of the Heavens and earth. The Torah, the Hebrew bible bestowed upon Moses, the leader (and prophet) of the chosen people of Israel, mentions in chapter 45 verses six through seven: â€Å"I am the Lord, and there is none else. I form the light and create darkness, I make peace and create evil. I am the Lord, that does all these things.† (Is. 45:6-7) Also described in chapter 112 verses two through five, of the Quran, the holy scripture of the Islamic faith sent down upon Mohammed [peace and blessings be upon him] the last prophet, â€Å"Say: [Oh Mohammed] He, Allah, is One. Allah is He on Whom all depend. He begets not, nor is He begotten; and none is like Him.† (Surah 112 Ikhlas – Unity – vs. 2-5) In all of these religions the theory of God is that he is alone, without gender or partner, but in ancient Greece, the gods were many and of both genders, every aspect of the heavens and the earth were split among twelve deities. Some overlapped, sometimes causing feuds; while others were alone in their ruling. Before the twelve Olympians ruled there were other gods, and a beginning before the beginning. The mystery of how the universe was created is a challenging question that has been puzzling man since man first pondered upon it. Various explanations have been given throughout ancient times. Rhoda A. Hendricks, author of several books on classic civilization, recounts Hesiod’s (a Greek oral poet thought to have been alive between 750 – 650 B.C.) Version which closely resembles Gneisses â€Å"First of all Chaos came into being, and then Gaea, the broad Earth, the ever certain support of all the deathless gods who dwell on the summit of snowy Olympus, and also dark Tartarus in the innermost part of the broad-path earth, and also Eros, the fairest of the immortal gods, who relaxes the limbs and overpowers the resolution and thoughtful determination in the hearts of all the gods and all mankind† Gaea, Earth, united with Uranus, heaven, creating the Titans, six gods and Goddess. Among them was Cronus, their youngest son and the cause of the Titan’s downfall. Destroying his father and taking the crown Cronus became the supreme ruler. With his sister Rhea as his new bride, Cronus fathered six of the major Greek deities – Zeus, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, Demeter, and Hestia. The tradition for takeover was set, for Zeus followed in his father’s steps of killing the current ruler, Cronus, and marring his sister, Hera. From Hera and Zeus came Ares, the God of war, Hephaestus, the god of fire, and metal work, and Hebe, the Goddess of Youth (Hendricks). Being the philanderer he was known to be, Zeus had father many other Gods, and Goddess. Though the Greeks say Chaos was put in order, and the Earth was settled, I believe it had only begun, for these twelve Olympians (two more to be born later from Zeus) would create chaos like no man has ever known. Being Gods, supreme rulers of all that is supernatural and earthly, one would assume that humans were beneath them, but that was not the case for some of the gods. Instead of being above mankind they acted as though they were among the vulnerable; constantly battling each other in petty contests, than seeking a mortal’s approval. They would meddle and mingle with the fate of man just to satisfy their egos. For example the story of Helen of Troy was set off by a chain of events caused by the Gods being petty and narcissistic. Some might think of the downfall of Troy with the Trojan horse was the fault of Paris for being selfish, taking Helen away from Sparta and back to Troy with him. But poor Paris had no control of fate, but Zeus did. The story of Troy and also the beauty contest is a good example of how the human-like behaviors are involved. Helen of Troy was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, an earthly woman married to the king of Tyndareus. Zeus, the king of the Olympians and ancient Greece’s very own Casanova, was infatuated with this magnificent woman. Ignoring the fact that she was married, and that he would be committing adultery, Zeus came down from Mount Olympus in the form of a swan and took advantage of unsuspecting Leda. From that night she bore his half-immortal children, one of which was Helen. Helen was said to be a beauty that no man had ever seen. She was compared to Aphrodite herself, the Goddess of love and eternal beauty; being part immortal didn’t hurt either. She was the bride of Menelaus the king of Sparta, and she was soon to be the love interest of Paris. But Paris wouldn’t have been able to take Helen from Menelaus if not for Aphrodite’s assistance. Paris, Prince of Troy, was asked by Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite to judge a beauty contest. Again this was the doing of Zeus, for he had instructed Hermes, the messenger to the gods, to lead the Goddess to Paris to be the judge. Each of the Goddess promised him a reward if they chose them as the winner. Hera offered to make him the ruler over all man if she were chosen; Athena ensured him victory in all his battles, but it was Aphrodite’s offer that had won him over. The Goddess of beauty had promised the hand and heart of another beauty, Helen. And so as the story goes, Paris sweeps Helen off her feet and brings her home to Troy, focusing Menelaus to seek his brother’s aid in avenge his honor and reclaim his bride. The story does not end there, the Gods continue to meddle in the lives of their subjects; Athena, Hera and Poseidon frequently helped the Greeks, while Aphrodite and Ares defended the city of Troy (Hendricks), but sadly Troy is defeated in the end. In that one story along, we find the Gods behaving in petty and vengeful ways. They’ve ruining the lives of hundreds to satisfy their own selfish psyche. Zeus takes his way with Leda, knowing fully what this will cause. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena put Paris in a predicament he cannot win, and later Athena and Hera go against him and his people for simply disagreeing with them. At times the gods were simply selfish, and other times they were genuine. Some gods honestly and truly loved the mortals that prayed to them. These sympathetic gods would defy their elders and find ways to make their love immortal so they may join them in Mount Olympus. In the story of Psyche and Eros, (Cupid) Eros fell in love with Psyche, a mortal princess whose astounding beauty earned the anger of Aphrodite. Cupid, the son of Aphrodite and Ares (the god of war), was the god of desire, affection, and erotic love. Annoyed with Psyche, Aphrodite sent Cupid to prick her with one of his arrows which would have forced her to fall in love with the most hideous man in all of Greece; this only shows another great example of the god’s petty jealousness. Cupid went to do as he was instructed, but instead of putting Psyche under a spell, he accidently pricks himself and he is bound by the love spell of his own arrows. Aphrodite had forbidden Eros to be with mortal woman, which was hypocritical considering she herself had many affairs with mortal men, and so had her father Zeus. Of course Eros defies his mother and goes off to see Psyche anyways. The myths and legends from those times had done more than fascinate man; they inspired us to name medical and psychological terms after them. Things like phobia, which is usually defined as a persistent fear of an object or situation in which the sufferer commits to great lengths in order to avoid their fear. Typically this was disproportional to the actual danger posed, often being recognized as irrational. In the event the phobia cannot be avoided entirely the sufferer will endure the situation or object with marked distress and significant interference in social or occupational activities. A famous and common phobia is arachnophobia, the fear of spiders and other arachnids, such as scorpions. This came from the story of Arachne and Athena. Arachne was a great mortal weaver who boasted that her skill was greater than that of Athena, goddess of wisdom and strategy. Arachne refused to acknowledge that her knowledge came in part from the goddess. Offended by Arachne’s arrogance, Athena set a contest between the two weavers. According to the recordings by Ovid, a Roman poet and collector of classic ancient Greek myths, the goddess was so envious of the magnificent tapestry and the mortal weaver’s success, and perhaps offended by the girl’s choice of subjects (the loves and transgressions of the gods), that she destroyed the tapestry and loom and slashed the girl’s face. The brown haired goddess Raged at the girl’s success, struck through her loom, tore down the scenes of wayward joys in heaven. Ultimately, the goddess turned Arachne into a spider. A commonly used term of psychology is narcissism, the love and interest of only one’s self. This comes from the story of Echo and Narcissus as it is written in Thomas Bulfinch’s Stories of Gods and Hero’s. Narcissus was a handsome Greek youth who rejected the desperate advances of the nymph Echo. As punishment, he was doomed to fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. Unable to consummate his love, Narcissus â€Å"lay gazing enraptured into the pool, hour after hour† (Graves), and finally changed into a flower that bears his name, the Narcissus. According to the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, narcissistic personality disorder is defined as â€Å"an individual who is excessively preoccupied with issues of personal adequacy, power, prestige and vanity.† In other words can’t see anything past one’s own problems. Thanks to the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, the story of Oedipus has become one of the most widely known psychological Greek myths in the modern world. However, because of Freud’s ‘Oedipus Complex’, many modern readers focus on his apparent love of his mother and hatred for his father; this in fact is not true to the Greek mythological tradition of Oedipus. As told by Robert Graves in The Greek Myths part II, Oedipus’s birth father Laius was married to Iocaste and ruled over Thebes. Grieved by his prolonged childlessness, he secretly consulted the Delphic Oracle, which informed him that this seeming misfortune was a blessing, because any child born to Iocaste would become his murderer. In an attempt to prevent this prophecy’s fulfillment, upon the birth of the boy Laius had his ankles pinned together so that he could not crawl ( causing his ankles to swell and giving him his name Oedipus, translated to be swollen ankles); he then gave the boy to a servant to pass onto a shepherd from Corinth and then to another shepherd so on till he was in Polybus. Eventually Oedipus was adopted by the King and Queen of Polybus; because they two were childless they decided to raise him to be their own. Several years later Oedipus left Polybus in search of his birth place and parents. Soon he came upon a road and was rudely told off by his biological father, which he had no knowledge of at the time. The two engaged in a battle resulting in the death of Laius, unintentionally fulfilling the prophecy of his father’s death. Upon arriving in the city of Thebus after solving the sphinx’s riddle Oedipus was crowned king and was given the mourning queen as a bride He again unaware of their biological connection. He continues to rule as the King of Thebus, but once he found out that he married his mother and killed his father, he gouged his eyes out and wandered the desert for ages. As the story goes on we find elements of psychological disorders but, Oedipus himself did not suffer from Sigmund’s theory of what Oedipus complex was. In all this one can find the contrast between the Greek deities and the Abrahamic Gods. The contrast between the Abrahamic and the Greek gods has been shown to be extreme . The Abrahamic religions had the monotheistic God who was all-powerful and all-knowing. Although the Torah and Bible describe him as â€Å"jealous,† it was seen as meaning that he expected a strict following of the laws that he gave to the people. The Abrahamic God’s reasons behind the love and punishment were unclear to the followers, this was a test of their faith. God was not understood completely but was followed wholeheartedly. The Greek gods had behaviors that were very easily understood by the people. They acted in very human ways, although the â€Å"lightning bolt† of Zeus could not be defended against. Their stories relay their human like personalities. They would get angry over insults made by their subjects (Athena); they let their lusts carry them away (Aphrodite, and Zeus); they engage in petty feuds with one another (Aphrodite, Athena, Hera). Moreover, the Greek gods appear to humans and mingle with them, helping or hindering them and at times, making love with them. The Olympic Gods had the same physical and emotional characteristics as us. Mortal women could compare to Aphrodite’s beauty and Zeus could be out witted and fooled. Jealousy, anger, bitterness as well as love and compassion were signature characteristics of the God’s personalities. WORK CITIED: SOURCES 1. According to Greek Mythology: Pandora

Art is an expression Essay

Art to me is an expression. Society has a way of creating social norms, and through this influence people to become inspired to be different, to express themselves in many ways and to share with others this passion, in the form of art. Cultures have utilized art in the form of drawings, patterns, and techniques; for example the type of clothes they wear, and type of houses they live in. Art is everywhere. Albert Einstein once said, you could look at life as if nothings a miracle or as if everything is. I think that you can look at art in the same way. I remember watching a film in class on a man and a woman who were in charge of the community project that consisted of hanging sheets for miles. I have no idea why they would do that over a different art project, but I got their message. It was all about working together, doing something that was unique and of their own works, regardless of everyone else’s opinion. They had to fight the system for a while before they were able to begin. That’s passion. After the readings I can’t help but to agree that art offers us a way to go beyond physical existence. What the author is saying to me is that art in every form changes our values our ideas in an effect change our lives. We are not robots, we don’t have to stay within regulations; we have the ability to be creative. Being creative is the most powerful tool we have some may argue. To touch back on why people make art, I can remember watching movies as a kid and there was this one kid out of the prep school that did wear the dress uniform to standard like all the other students. He was seeking to be different. Changing your uniform up a little to be different is art. Indians may paint their faces and their horses differently so that they stand out of all the others so that they can be found and identify. Same cases Indians made art was to distinguish themselves from other tribes as to not kill  their own people during a raid or battle. I used to become stressed with school and/or with relationship issues so I started drawing. I never liked being told what to draw and how to do it. I mostly like to begin with lines and later find out it looks like something that was unplanned. The reasons why I draw was take my focus off of life. Sometimes drawing something that makes you happy can help you to recall memories from good experiences and can turn your day around. Art is my tool and is my passion.

Social Class and Stratification

Social Class and Stratification Introduction The recent rise in crime incidents highlights the social problem of youth crime in the Western countries, including the United States. While the rise in crime rates can be attributed to many factors, the broader economic and social forces shape youth crime in these countries. In particular, factors such as social inequality, poverty, and social exclusion influence, directly or indirectly, most of the criminal activities and youth violence.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Class and Stratification specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the same context, White and Cunneen in the chapter, ‘Social Class, Youth Crime and Justice’ discuss these social problems and their implications for policy. The discussion in the chapter revolves around two main issues: the impact of social class on youth criminalization and the impact of globalization on social inequality. The authors argue that the prevail ing social and economic structures are creating an â€Å"impoverished and socially disadvantaged† youth contributing to a rise in crime (White, and Cunneen 17). A connection between social exclusion, economic inequality and the rise in crime is established in this chapter. The problem of social exclusion and economic inequality, influence the youth criminal tendencies. Social Class and Crime Tendencies The chapter provides an analysis on how social classes arise among the youthful population. Most importantly, it enhances our understanding of how social stratification arises in a political, social and economic context especially with regard to the formulation of legislations and distribution of resources. This entrenches class exclusion in two ways; economically and through biased criminalization practices. The class issue among the youth depends highly on resource availability at family or community level. The resources allow the family or community to provide adequate socia l support to the young people, which in turn reduce their tendency to engage in crime. In particular, resource availability determines the youth lifestyles, their level of education and their type of employment. However, the state, the market and the social networks influence resource availability hence their impact on social class. Most notable is their impact on youth employment. Most often, the problem of youth unemployment breeds other social problems especially crime. The prevalent political and economic factors lead to increased economic polarization between the rich and the poor. As a result, most communities are increasingly becoming impoverished characterized by high unemployment rates among the young people (White, and Cunneen 19). The current restructuring in the labor market coupled with an economic slowdown has had devastating effects on employment opportunities that increase youth crime.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The chapter examines the relationship between economic inequality and criminal tendencies among the youth in industrialized nations. This helps to understand the reason why violent crimes are committed by youth from poor economic backgrounds or minority communities. Consequently, justice system screening of the young people emphasizes on economic and social characteristics of the offender ethnic community. In light of this, the authors argue that criminal tendency in young people is not only dependent on prevalent economic and social inequalities but also on the processes of criminalization of marginalized youth by the state agencies (White, and Cunneen 22). State intervention through social support programs tends to be disproportionate, which has a damaging effect on marginalized groups. This entrenches the practice of social exclusion among economically disadvantaged youth. Social Aspects of Youth Offending The auth ors identify two aspects of offending among the youth in the chapter: unemployment and poverty. The authors argue that for a proper understanding of the extent of offending in a particular location, the analysis of the two social aspects is crucial. Further, the authors explain that youthful offending is a result of the interplay of social factors specific to a social group such as unemployment or inequality. Instead, factors such as societal influence on youth behavior and demographic factors such as the high number of unemployed youth determine the patterns of youthful offending in a particular community. In particular, a high number of unemployed youth in a particular geographic location entrenches social exclusion. In addition, certain neighborhoods, characterized by high unemployment and poor housing and perceived as crime prone, frequently face repressive government interventions (White, and Cunneen 24). Additionally, crime-prone neighborhoods influence the tendency of the you ng people to engage in offending behavior. In this regard, community context influences the social exclusion and criminalization of disadvantaged youth.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Class and Stratification specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The chapter also discusses the negative perception of the marginalized groups as being morally corrupt especially by the criminal justice agencies. The young people from low economic and social classes are perceived as crime prone and deserve reformation. As a result, they face stiff coercive state interventions, which serve to reinforce the aspects of social inequality. The authors also argue that criminalization and state coercive actions often involve some form of geographical segregation. This group faces repressive interventions to deter antisocial behavior instead of social support interventions. The authors highlight the implications of social exclusion on social identity, among the youth. Marginalization of the youth based on economic and social factors leads to disintegration of social connections that lead to loss of social identity. Lack of resources and prevalent criminalization affects the social networks. The high youth unemployment coupled by exclusion from mainstream economic activity means that the youth cannot engage in any legal consumptive activities. Consequently, the youth engage in antisocial alternative economic activities, which lead to loss of social identity. Further, the authors explain the implications of social exclusion on social policy. They single out the concentration of the economically disadvantaged in one location as responsible for high crime rates in these neighborhoods. Even in times of restructuring in the labor market or economic recessions, the ethnic minority face the worst effects through job losses and deterioration of basic infrastructure and amenities (White, and Cunneen 25). Consequently, the neighbo rhood develops a poor reputation including that of a high zone. For the youth in these neighborhoods, opportunities become increasingly limited. This contributes to the rise in crime and illegal economic activities. In my opinion, understanding of this chapter is particularly relevant to criminology in many ways. In particular, the relationship between social exclusion and crime is essential in management of crime among the youth. Intervention efforts should focus on enhancing economic equality and creating employment opportunities to mitigate the effects of social exclusion.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition, misperceptions and criminalization by intervention agencies only serve to increase criminal tendencies and anti-social behaviors among the youth. In my view, therefore, interventions should focus on social support to improve the youth’s economic welfare as well as reduce social exclusion. Conclusion The chapter mainly highlights the class issue among the young people and the relevance of the state intervention policies. In essence, the economic structures in industrialized economies propagate social exclusion of minorities. Additionally, the state support efforts often involve criminalization and misperceptions, which advances social inequality and exclusion of youth from poor neighborhoods. This serves to increase crime as the young people lack employment or opportunities to advance themselves. Work Cited White, Rob, and Cunneen, Chris. â€Å"Social Class, Youth Crime and Justice.† In Barry Goldson and John Muncie, (Ed.), Youth Crime and Justice. London: Sage publications, 2006.

Office administration SBA Essay Essay Example

Office administration SBA Essay Essay Example Office administration SBA Essay Essay Office administration SBA Essay Essay Statement of TopicTo find the responsibilities and duties of the Administrative Assistant at The Cable Department. AimThe aims of this undertaking are:To look into the responsibilities and duties of the administrative helper To find the importance of the Administrative Assistant to the organisation. Functions of the Cable DepartmentAt The Cable Department. the maps of an Administrative Assistant areto brand and natural assignments on behalf of an executive and to recognize the client or possible concern individual in the most polite manner. Abbott Village.West Farm.St Kitts. 17 October. 2012 Ms Judith HewletThe Administrative Assistant.The Cable Department.Church Street.Basseterre. Dear Ms Hewlet.I am a 5th signifier pupil of the Verchilds High school. In an attempt to finish my School Based Assessment. I am composing this missive seeking permission to carry on an interview with you and besides to make some observations of the Administrative Assistant. I would wish to happen out the responsibilities of the secretary and how his or her work benefits the concern. I hope that you would allow me permission to hold this interview. I would be highly thankful as this would do it easier for me to finish my Office Administration School Based Assessment Project. Thankss in progress for your cooperation. Yours unfeignedly. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Tashaun Greene MethodologyThe instrument that the research worker used to garner the informationwas an interview. The research worker interviewed the Administrative Assistant on the 21st of October. 2013 and recorded responses during the treatment. This instrument is used by inquiring an Ms. Hewlet in that particular concern topographic point inquiries whether face to face or over the telephonewhich is relevant to the concern to garner information. This instrument was chosen over others because more inquiries can be asked and the research worker may acquire a better apprehension of the information. In add-on. the interviewer can reply inquiries that were non clearly understood by the respondent. this manner is much more effectual and faster in footings of acquiring the information. Five of import inquiries1. What equipment do you utilize to finish your work?2. What are the responsibilities in the concern?3. What are the paperss used in the concern?4. What are the statute laws that govern the concern?5. Are at that place any wellness and safety regulations? Agenda of Activity DateActivityRemarks13/9/12The guidelines for the SBA was handed to the research worker from the instructor The instructor explained everything that should or should non be done in the SBA14/9/12The research worker started research on the first six undertakings of the undertaking A past pupil corrected the undertaking and set a few alterations19/9/12I spoke with the secretary to seek her permission about the interview The secretary was pleased to reply and said yes23/9/12The SBA was sent back to the research worker in an electronic mailThe instructor corrected the undertaking14/12/12The research worker was on occupation fond regard to acquire farther information about the undertaking It was a success and all the information required was cod 21/12/12The interview was conductedIt was successful8/1/13The instructor gathered with pupils to inquire about the occupation experience The pupils responded good. it benefited most of them 21/1/13The SBA was sent to the instructorTeacher made some accommodations to the SBA22/2/13The SBA was sent back to the research worker to be correctedThe research worker sent back the rectification to the instructor Rules and Regulations Legislation One statute law that governs the work topographic point that the research worker had to be cognizant of is confidentiality. this merely means that whatever information is in the concern topographic point it should remain at that place and shouldn’t be discuss among your equals. relations or friends etc. The information should remain private. However. the research worker became cognizant of this statute law by the members on staff. Health AND SAFETY One wellness and safety pattern while transporting out this research undertaking based on the workplace is the mark which reads â€Å"wet floor† . This mark prevents people from acquiring hurt by allowing them know that danger can be in front of them. STAFF RULE One staff regulation which the research worker had to follow with while transporting out the undertaking is that there should be no usage of cell phones while working. This is so because it may be a distraction or it may develop struggle between the clients and the staff member. Report The aims of the undertaking are to look into the responsibilities and duties of the secretary and to find the importance of the Administrative Assistant are to keep good working conditions and to utilize the basic package applications. Business Form DateName OF DOCUMENTPURPOSE OF DOCUMENT19/12/12Internet User AgreementThe intent of this papers is to guarantee that the clients agree to acquire the cyberspace service and they will make whatever is required to acquire the service. 21/12/12The Cable FormThe intent of this signifier is for the clients to make full out to clear up whether they want to reconnect. gulf. ascent or downgrade their service. Cancelation FormThe intent of this signifier to call off the full overseas telegram service. OFFICE EQUIPMENT DateEquipmentPurpose OF EQUIPMENTSUITABILITY FOR TASKS27/12/12Photograph Copying MachineThe intent of this equipment is to copy the customer’s ID and any other papers that is at that place for cogent evidence It is suited to clear up whether the individual is who they say they are 28/12/12 Cash RegisterThe intent of this equipment is for the clients to pay their measure in which they owe or to do certain minutess It is suited because this is the chief thing that the clients come into the concern to make and it will be profiting the concern because they will be acquiring money 30/12/12 PrinterThe intent of this equipment is to maintain a difficult transcript of the of import information or information relevant to the concern It is suited to publish material so there would be a difficult transcript so they will be sent out to consumers. for illustration letters Bibliography Person listed:21 December 2012. Basseterre. Labour Secretariat Administrative Assistant Publication ListS Finisterre. L Payne A ; J Reid ( 2004 ) Longman Office Administration for CXC Appendix Five of import inquiries 1. What is the equipment used in the concern?2. What are the responsibilities of the concern?3. What are the paperss used in the concern?4. What are the paperss used for in the concern?5. What are the statute laws that govern the concern?6. Are at that place healthy and safety regulations?7. Is the concern a successful one?8. What are the benefits of the concern?9. Are at that place any staff regulations?

Washington Naval Disarmament Treaty

Washington Naval Disarmament Treaty The Washington Naval Conference Following the end of World War I, the United States, Great Britain, and Japan all commenced large-scale programs of capital ship construction. In the United States, this took the form of five new battleships and four battlecruisers, while across the Atlantic the Royal Navy was preparing to build its series of G3 Battlecruisers and N3 Battleships. For the Japanese, the postwar naval construction began with a program calling for eight new battleships and eight new battlecruisers. This building spree led to concern that a new naval arms race, similar to the pre-war Anglo-German competition, was about to begin. Seeking to prevent this, President Warren G. Harding called the Washington Naval Conference in late 1921, with the goal of establishing limits on warship construction and tonnage. Convening on November 12, 1921, under the auspices of the League of Nations, the delegates met at Memorial Continental Hall in Washington DC. Attended by nine countries with concerns in the Pacific, the principal players included the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy. Leading the American delegation was Secretary of State Charles Evan Hughes who sought to limit Japanese expansionism in the Pacific. For the British, the conference offered an opportunity to avoid an arms race with the US as well as an opportunity to achieve stability in the Pacific which would provide protection to Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand. Arriving in Washington, the Japanese possessed a clear agenda that included a naval treaty and recognition of their interests in Manchuria and Mongolia. Both nations were concerned about the power of American shipyards to out-produce them if an arms race were to occur. As the negotiations commenced, Hughes was aided by intelligence provided by Herbert Yardleys Black Chamber. Operated cooperatively by the State Department and US Army, Yardleys office was tasked with intercepting and decrypting communications between the delegations and their home governments. Particular progress was made breaking Japanese codes and reading their traffic. The intelligence received from this source permitted Hughes to negotiate the most favorable deal possible with the Japanese. After several weeks of meetings, the worlds first disarmament treaty was signed on February 6, 1922. The Washington Naval Treaty The Washington Naval Treaty set specific tonnage limits on the signees as well as restricted armament size and expansion of naval facilities. The core of the treaty established a tonnage ratio that permitted the following: United States: Capital Ships - 525,000 tons, Aircraft Carriers - 135,000 tonsGreat Britain: Capital Ships - 525,000 tons, Aircraft Carriers - 135,000 tonsJapan: Capital Ships - 315,000 tons, Aircraft Carriers - 81,000 tonsFrance: Capital Ships - 175,000 tons, Aircraft Carriers - 60,000 tonsItaly: Capital Ships - 175,000 tons, Aircraft Carriers - 60,000 tons As part of these restrictions, no single ship was to exceed 35,000 tons or mount larger than 16-inch guns. Aircraft carrier size was capped at 27,000 tons, though two per nation could be as large as 33,000 tons. In regard to onshore facilities, it was agreed that the status quo at the time of the treatys signing would be maintained. This prohibited the further expansion or fortification of naval bases in small island territories and possessions. Expansion on the mainland or large islands (such as Hawaii) was permitted. Since some commissioned warships  exceeded the treaty terms, some exceptions were made for existing tonnage. Under the treaty, older warships could be replaced, however, the new vessels were required to meet the restrictions and all signatories were to be informed of their construction. The 5:5:3:1:1 ratio imposed by the treaty led to friction during negotiations. France, with coasts on the Atlantic and Mediterranean, felt that it should be permitted a larger fleet than Italy. They were finally convinced to agree to the ratio by promises of British support in the Atlantic. Among the main naval powers, the 5:5:3 ratio was badly received by the Japanese who felt they were being slighted by the Western Powers. As the Imperial Japanese Navy was essentially a one-ocean navy, the ratio still gave them a superiority over the US and Royal Navy which had multi-ocean responsibilities. With the treatys implementation, the British were forced to cancel the G3 and N3 programs and the US Navy was required to scrap some of its existing tonnages to meet the tonnage restriction. Two battlecruisers then under construction were converted into the aircraft carriers USS Lexington and USS Saratoga. The treaty effectively stopped battleship construction for several years as the signatories attempted to design ships that were powerful, but yet still met the agreements terms. Also, efforts were made to build large light cruisers that were effectively heavy cruisers or that could be up-converted with bigger guns in wartime. In 1930, the treaty was altered by the London Naval Treaty. This, in turn, was followed by the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936. This last treaty was not signed by Japanese as they had decided to withdraw from the agreement in 1934. The series of treaties begun with the Washington Naval Treaty effectively ceased on September 1, 1939, with the beginning of World War II. While in place, the treaty did somewhat limit capital ship construction, however, the per vessel tonnage limitations were frequently flouted with most signatories either using creative accounting in computing displacement or outright lying about a vessels size. Selected Sources Washington Naval Treaty: TextUS State Department: Washington Naval Conference

Is Ham correct that connection between science and naturalism is Thesis - 1

Is Ham correct that connection between science and naturalism is arbitrary - Thesis Example These clearly distinguish it from the philosophy of super natural which is of course purely based on belief and theories that can not be tested, argued or experimented. In science, there is need for carrying out observations because it plays a very significant role in providing information that can be verified. Through observation, scientists can be able to gather information after personally making an attempt of seeing for themselves exactly what happens. In my opinion, may be it is for this reason that H’m it is for this reason that science does not encompass the elements of the supernatural because the criterion of observation does not apply in the super natural in which people do not need to make observations. The other important component of science is experimentation. In the process of acquisition of scientific knowledge, experimentation can be conducted. This is done by carrying out scientific studies in the laboratory based on the theories and hypotheses for that particular research. Whenever doing this, a scientist should be ready to be impartial and committed to the studies. If properly done, a more profound and verifiable results will be produced. These can be relied upon by the scientist as a source of information. However, as already highlighted, science still remain a subject that requires consent. This may be applicable in the natural law, but contradicts the law of super natural that dictates that everything is owed to a supernatural creature whose existence and performance can not be subjected to any form of experimentation since it is not necessarily needed. Nonetheless, scientific knowledge is defined by prediction. It is the act of prediction that compels scientists to carry out studies to ascertain exact values and figures so as to arrive at accurate and conclusive findings. So, because of this, there needs to be a formulation of hypotheses that are used to

Learning Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Learning Styles - Essay Example The score of 3b means that I am a fairly well-balanced individual on the two dimensions of the scale. According to this result, I can learn best as either a visual or a verbal learner. Visual learners are good at remembering best what they see as opposed to verbal learners who work best with words. Visual learners prefer the use of diagrams, timelines, pictures, films, flow charts and demonstrations in order to grasp what is being taught. On the other hand, verbal learners make the best of their learning when written and spoken explanations are made (LeFever, 1995). Being a fairly well-balanced type of learner, I have the qualities of both a visual and a verbal learner. I can, therefore, fit in well in any of the above two teaching environments.I believe these results are quite accurate since I have experienced a positive result while learning in the above two kinds of environments. I also believe that I have an upper hand compared to most students who fall on either side of the scal e since I can be able to adapt to any teaching environment I fall under. ConclusionAfter taking the test and scoring a 3b, I am more confident on the type of learner I am due to the double advantage I possess of being able to learn in both a verbal and a visual environment. College education being mostly in form of lectures, I will capitalize on my verbal learning strength by working in groups and trying to better my understanding by explaining teachings and concepts to other students.

2)Debate the importance of Mahalia Jackson to The Movement. Do so with Essay

2)Debate the importance of Mahalia Jackson to The Movement. Do so with reference to a theoretical framework - Essay Example Being the first gospel superstar, up to date, many listeners still love her songs defining the symbol of transcendent power in her music (Darryl 2005, pp.129). With her gift of singularly and expressive contralto, she continues to inspire other generations of vocalists after her. In her music, she inculcated gospel with sensuality and freedom that had not been experienced before. She did that by introducing some blues elements into her music making her be among the first spiritual performers to do so. At the age of 16, like many Americans with an African background living in the south, she participated in the great migration to C she to Chicago, Illinois for better opportunities, Where she was invited in various places to perform her songs. Ever developing her spirit through church and its music, Jackson made the oath use her inimitable voice for spiritual song- a promise she kept. For instance, after her first service, she was invited join choir of the Greater Salem Church. She then began touring some of the city churches and the surrounding areas with one of the professional gospel groups, Johnson gospel singers (Colin 2005,pp 2107). Jackson was also given musical advice by Thomas A. Dorsey in 1929, viewed as the Father of Gospel Music, who also went further ahead and formed an association with her. According to Darryl, (2005) p. 132, some of her songs became her signature songs. Those included; ‘Take my Hand’ and ‘Precious Lord. In the mid 30s, Jackson met Evelyn Gay, a pianist, who accompanied her in her solo career. This was after the Johnson Brothers group members separated (Colin 2005, pp.2118). Later in 1937, she did her first recordings albums for Decca. At this period of time, her singing reputation grew throughout the Midwest. With her Decca song ‘Gods Gonna Separate the Wheat from the Tares’ which sold, she was prompted a lengthy studio break. Since her career

Ethics of Robotic Warfare Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethics of Robotic Warfare - Research Paper Example During military missions such as Operation Iraq Freedom in Iraq and Operation enduring Freedom in Afghanistan the US troops used 6,000 unmanned robotic systems. Systems such as the Global Hawk and Reaper are highly effective in reconnaissance, munitions delivery, air/ground survey and photography (Weber 11). These robotic operations are helpful as they help commanders make rational, intelligent and well informed military decisions in times of war. Although the robots may be used for tactical defense and other war actions, there remains the question of ethics behind the use of robots in warfare. Capurro and Nagenborg state that â€Å"robots are and will remain in the foreseeable future dependent on human ethical scrutiny as well as on the moral and legal responsibility of humans (54).† What exactly is robotic ethics? Ethics is a discipline that is concerned with morals and values that explicitly or implicitly underlie human behavior. Robotic ethics therefore, is the term used to describe the moral norms and values that relate to the use of robots where human life or interest is concerned. The interaction of humans and robots raises some difficult but serious questions regarding the creation of war machines that may or may not be morally inclined to carry out war operations (McDaniel 99). The big question here is: does the world really need robotic welfare? Issues arise regarding the application of these robots for example, the use of these robots in warfare, ramification of labor and the intentional manipulation of the human beings by the robot creatures (Brey, Briggle and Waelbers 45). Of great concern has the use of the robots for warfare as it would be discussed in this paper. The use of the robots has short term ethical consequences which are very serious. The ethics of the battlefield have for a long time been a huge problem and caused a lot of constraint for military conduct. The Geneva Conventions were created

The Impact of Structural Changes in Rents on Different People Research Paper

The Impact of Structural Changes in Rents on Different People - Research Paper Example The previous Conservative government up to 1997 had a policy of allowing social rents to increase with the intention of reducing public expenditure on subsidies with little regard to the impact on affordability or work incentives for tenants. They argued that rent increases allowed help to be diverted to those in greatest need. Better-off tenants met rent increases out of their own pockets while Housing Benefit 'took the strain' for the poorer tenants. This, however, created serious problems of benefit dependency and work disincentives throughout the country. The present Labour Government has already introduced the national minimum wage and Working Families Tax Credit (WFTC) in order to tackle poverty, promote work incentives and reduce benefit dependency. Realignment of rents in line with this thinking has been taken up on priority. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) now changed to the Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG) [since May 2006] has issued seve ral guidelines on the calculation and setting of rent for different social housing properties. Since April 2002 rents are calculated according to a formula based on relative property values, local earnings and property size. Restructured rents are calculated using the formula and data set out in the DCLG guide to Social Rent Reforms. Circular R2-27/01: ‘Rent Influencing Regime – Implementing the Rent Restructuring Framework’ also sets out the calculation of target rents. The complex mosaic of rental patterns in the social rented sector begins to make sense once the nature of individual rent schemes is explored.

Environmental impact Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Environmental impact - Essay Example The sector of property is now aware that there is need to reduce exposure of any kind to environment risks in all constructions although many developments-related to risks overtime have been linked to pollution activities or sometimes the failure on the part of the specialists when dealing with particular environment hazards. The construction industry may experience serious impact in future related to environment if certain measures are not taken soon enough (Anderson & Shiers, 2007). The environmental impacts are categorized in different forms, since is clear without doubt that there is continues mounting of carbon dioxide (CO2) accumulations in the atmosphere and other harmful â€Å"greenhouse† gases, for example, methane. The result of this will be leading the world into serious global warming as well as climate change. Since the main source behind greenhouse gases is a result of burning fossil fuels to extract energy. The Green Guide intention is to use all building assessment tools like the BREEAM, this stands for the code to identify sustainable homes or rather EcoHomes instead of standalone tool. The choice of materials taken together with specification has some impact on the total environmental, social and economic outcome on the building that Green Guide may not be able to account, therefore, BRE Global cannot recommend possible targets based on the specifications by Green Guide rating that is set separately (Kocsis, 2010). Low carbon technology structure is encouraged for many home owners especially wooden structures, and at the same time ensures that the structure/house has sufficient renewable energy is very important, proper guideline on the issue of managing design, constructions as well as operation towards carbon building technology. There are gaps that sometimes exeunt between the design and the performance despite genuine intentions of developing relatively low carbon buildings although it does not

The Impact of Structural Changes in Rents on Different People Research Paper

The Impact of Structural Changes in Rents on Different People - Research Paper Example The previous Conservative government up to 1997 had a policy of allowing social rents to increase with the intention of reducing public expenditure on subsidies with little regard to the impact on affordability or work incentives for tenants. They argued that rent increases allowed help to be diverted to those in greatest need. Better-off tenants met rent increases out of their own pockets while Housing Benefit 'took the strain' for the poorer tenants. This, however, created serious problems of benefit dependency and work disincentives throughout the country. The present Labour Government has already introduced the national minimum wage and Working Families Tax Credit (WFTC) in order to tackle poverty, promote work incentives and reduce benefit dependency. Realignment of rents in line with this thinking has been taken up on priority. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) now changed to the Department of Communities and Local Government (DCLG) [since May 2006] has issued seve ral guidelines on the calculation and setting of rent for different social housing properties. Since April 2002 rents are calculated according to a formula based on relative property values, local earnings and property size. Restructured rents are calculated using the formula and data set out in the DCLG guide to Social Rent Reforms. Circular R2-27/01: ‘Rent Influencing Regime – Implementing the Rent Restructuring Framework’ also sets out the calculation of target rents. The complex mosaic of rental patterns in the social rented sector begins to make sense once the nature of individual rent schemes is explored.

Supply Chain Management at World Co. Ltd. Essay Example for Free

Supply Chain Management at World Co. Ltd. Essay Industry Facts: Specialty Retailing Sector -Women’s apparel industry in Japan seasonal industry products have short life cycles and extremely uncertain demand International Competition 3 Distribution Alternatives- company-owned stand alone stores, shops in fashion malls, and shops within department stores â€Å"store-within-a-store† Company Facts Operates in women’s apparel industry Company uses both wholesale and retail distribution methods Wholesale items are sold in other stores (retailers) Specialty store Private-label apparel (SPA) merchandise which includes the OZOC and Untitled brands was sold at stores owned by World Uses SPARCS, a business process system that allows World to monitor sales trends and focus on customer demand to maximize the efficiency of store support operations By late 1990’s World sold over 40 different brands in approximately 7,000 shops and stores World’s divisions are organized by product (brand name) 1998- World Employed 2,394 workers Net sales $1.8 billion and net income of $32million Company held a 3.5% share of the Japanese apparel market Major U.S. competitors are Gap Inc., The Limited Rooted in Domestic Manufacturing Brand Facts Targeted at female customers 25-29 years of age Annual Sales 2.2 million Introduce new collections twice annually (Spring-Summer; Fall-Winter) Introduced New Products Every 2 Weeks At the end of 1998, Untitled Brand could be Found in 110 Stores Qualitative Analysis Industry Analysis: Threats: Lack of Channel Power Uncertain Demand Seasonality Inventory Risk Opportunities Fewer Variations In Store Assortments Fast Changing Fashion Trends (Social) Low Inventory Levels International Manufacturing Company Analysis Strengths World’s High Inventory Turns (5/year) (Operations) 47% Gross Margin Keen Competitive Intelligence- reviewed competitor’s brands every six months (Marketing) Decentralized Merchandising Operations- each brand was autonomous (Operations/Marketing) High Responsiveness (Operations) Versatile Line Workers Recruited talented individuals who were unafraid of change and could motivate others (Management) Weaknesses Weak Pay-for-Performance System (Management) Low Brand Awareness Left over inventory is markdown 50% Quantitative Analysis: Wholesale net sales=(total net ales- net spa sales) ¥1,643,130,000 World’s private label spa brands  ¥250,000,000 Net Sales Of World Corporation ¥1,893,130,000 Cost of Sales  ¥983,610,000 Gross Profit Margin at 47%  ¥909,520,000 World’s private label Spa brandsNet Sales:  ¥250,000,000 SPA’s Cost of Goods sold:  ¥130,500,00 Purchases @ 97% ¥126,585,000 Other ¥ 3,415,000 G. M. of Spa brands at 47.8% of Sales Gross Margin:  ¥119,500,000 Cost of Goods sold include merchandise inventory, purchases, (purchase discounts), total merchandise available for sale Average Inventory for World Co., Limited and SPA Brands World Co., Limited Average Inventory = Cost of Goods sold =  ¥983,610,000 =  ¥$96,722,000 Inventory Turns 5 times a years SPA Brands Average Inventory = Cost of Goods sold =  ¥130,500,000 =  ¥15,294,117.65 Inventory Turns 8.5 times a years Cost to Retail Ratio Problems How to overcome Bargaining power of suppliers- retailers charge high prices for retail space Poor implementation of push (or pull) strategy Inventory Markdowns is second greatest variable expense accounting 24.10% of total Sales staff does not enter shipments into the computer upon receipt How to overcome compromised information accuracy during semi-annual sales

Non Native Speakers

Non Native Speakers Learning a language outside of your own can be difficult, it has its advantages. Even words that are considered unacceptable in some countries can have its uses, in this case English. The reason for this investigation is based on the concern about the use and perception of swearwords for students who are non native speakers (N.N.S) of English. The issues that I intend to explore are the ideas whether University students who are N.N.S of English are able to define and understand swear words within the English Language and if any similarity exists between our language and theirs. On top of that I would like to find out why they think it is essential to know what some slang words in English mean. To me this seems like a valuable topic as I have not come across a lot of research that can explain the opinions of those who originate from countries where English is not their first. Although I have read extracts from online journals by Tony Thorne, Jean-Marc Dewaele and Forbidden words by Ke ith Allan. Therefore, I found it to be an interesting challenge as it would open up a wider understanding of how opinions may differ between me and a student who comes from a different country. Word count: 458In this investigation I shall be looking at 4 sets of data, focusing on the opinion and answers of each participant. An initial interest in this area of investigation came from Forbidden words by Keith Allan and a journal by Jean-Marc Dewaele. It provided significant ideas as to why taboo language may be just as common in English in comparison to another country. A preparatory study was reading the journal of Jean-Marc Dewaele who looked at The Emotional force of swearwords and Taboo Words in the Speech of Multi-linguals. On personal level I feel this is an excellent area of study as it is one that I have interest in and I am intrigued to see what can be found. The investigation will make use of a list of taboo language within my questionnaire and whether a N.N.S has the ability to recognise and define these words. There should be a difference in the quantity and quality of answers from the N.N.S examining the words that I provide them with, and it also allows for a la rge amount of linguistic theories to be incorporated in the study such as Rod Ellis. There is no particular hypothesis for this investigation as I am not trying to prove a belief nor am I trying to criticise another, it is mostly based on whether there is an influence that our words have on N.N.S of English and if they can define them just as easily as an English person can. Literature Review The word taboo is derived from the Tongan tabu which came in to use around the end of the eighteenth century and according to Radcliffe Brown the word simply means to to forbid, forbidden, and can be applied to any sort of prohibition (Allan Burridge, 2006: 2). The discussion of censoring language tends to lead to other forms of communication such as polite/impolite remarks, euphemisms and dysphemisms. However over time the opinion of Taboo language has seemed to become less of an issue in society, for some reason it has become the norm in a persons language, though there are still those who are less inclined to accept it I have personally come across more who accept it in the United Kingdom. This investigation focuses on university students rather than a vast variety of ages (i.e. under 16 year olds and 30+) There is a serious side to analysing young peoples slang. Latest research suggests that what was once a passing fad may be evolving into a genuine dialect, dubbed multiethnic y outh vernacular, with its own vocabulary, accent and intonation. This new form of English, heavily influenced by Black and Asian speech, may actually displace what used to be known as the Queens English (Thorne, 2007: 1). In comparison to other countries outside of the U.K, in particular citizens from countries where English is not their first language can vary, there appears to be just as many profanities in their languages as well as our own. Every culture and language has taboos; some may be easier to define than others as each language make us of different sets of taboos. An example that can illuminate some difference between swearing is Norwegian and English, the word shit in Norwegian tends to implicate lack of value, however Norway is very religious so calling someone a devil (jà ¦vel) is extremely offensive and looked down upon. Though in English offensive words tend to revolve around words that can also means parts of the human body, rather than just words that may insult a person due to their behaviour, i.e. cunt. In relation to this investigation, Wright (1987) feels that a positive way to teach learners of a second language is by writing instructional questions that invite learners to operate on input in some way (Allan Burridge, 2006: 17). I wanted to get a personal input from every participant that I handed out a questionnaire to in order to gain some variety of opinion between students from numerous cultures and felt this was the best way to do it. This study is based on the numerous classroom techniques that many second language learners (SLL, or SLD Second language developers) are introduced to when acquiring a target language. Wode (1980) thinks that classroom learners are able to utilise different strategies for producing TL and observes that they can memorise or imitate fairly long sentences of speech material (Ellis, 1984: 2) Further studies by Wode (1980) lead to results that showed classroom learners can also produce spontaneous speech just as much as those who learnt in a naturalistic way. There has been criticism for this method though, one by Hatch (1978) who stated that classroom learning tends to require frequency as SLL/SLD can take place so quickly that learners may soon fall behind and end up listeni ng instead of contributing to the tasks so little language is actually learnt and produced correctly, Hatch (1978) writes It is not easy to conduct a case study of an individual learner when this learner is immersed in a class of twenty or more such learners (Ellis, 1984: 8). Reading this influenced me to use fewer participants rather than a vast number, although for statistic analysis it would have proven useful, I was actually more concerned with the individual rather than the group. Using a questionnaire also defines the process of interaction between me (the teacher) and the student (the learner) Language development is the result of an interaction between the learners existing state of knowledge and the linguistic environment to which he is exposed (Ellis, 1984: 13). If this is the opinion during any kind of learning the student may go through, how are they able to come across words that they are not taught in the classroom? It could be subconscious strategies that the learner may use to intake information from everyday activities such watching an English film with subtitles, reading a book with English swear words then looking up what they mean, hearing them from friends or family, the internet and even in popular music, it is reasonable to assume t hat a learners learning style reflects both nature and nurture. The learners personality and cognitive style result in a general preference (Thorne 2007: 1). It also depends on the person and why they may want to learn taboo language in the first place, as Tony Thorne states it could be a way to form an identity, a way of excluding outsiders from their conversations (Thorne 2007: 1) this creates a barrier between them and others who they dont wish to communicate with. More of than not it could be so that they are able to recognize them when other people say these words, so they have the ability to defend themselves it has been said about them. Also as there are more people from non-native English speaking areas moving to places in the U.K it is best for them to know the right words from the wrong, for if one were to use a swear word in a job interview without having a full understanding of what it meant could result in them not getting the job at all. When writing pieces of work it is best to know what words to avoid when creating descriptions, it seems unlikely that a person from Luxemburg may write shit in a biology essay if they had to refer to specific roles of the human body but it is not an impossible mistake to make, or a person from France using the word bitch to either describe her opinions about someone or a female dog in a social situation where it is unlikely to be used. It also fascinates me how a learner manages to apply the rules th at they have learnt during SLL/SLD to words that are considered to be taboo, naturally they may just apply the meaning to what a word in their language may mean if it shares similarities for example being able to define which swear words are nouns or verbs. Scott Thornbury gives advice on teaching methods for second language students, and asks them to think about what kind of linguistic knowledge speakers of a language raw in order to express themselves (Thornbury, 1997: 10). This comes to mind when looking at reasons for how students who are N.N.S. of English (Non native speakers) use these kinds of censored words in order to express themselves, whether it be opinions or actions. Another researcher I found relevant to my investigation was the work of Jean-Marc Dewaele (2004) who states that these words are often among the first ones to be learned in an L2, typically outside the classroom with a gleeful NS of that language (Dewaele, 2004: 205). Dewaele points out that they rarely make an appearance in textbooks or used by their tutor in the classroom due to their offensive nature. Because of this, some language learners appear to lack general knowledge of taboo words so tend not to use them as much, they may come in contact with these words (maybe in conversation or though reading/listening to something) but may not actually know the meaning of the word. This creates a fascination of wanting to learn what these swearwords and other vulgar expressions, not just to be able to understand them but to use in themselves. According to Dewaele knowing how to swear in a foreign language can make you seem sophisticated, well-travelled or at least give you a means to swear in front of others without them thinking of you as a foul-mouthed person (Dewaele, 2004: 206), it can also save the possible embarrassment of ensuring that it isnt used in situations where it can be unacceptable (i.e. classroom talk, church and family gatherings). Word count: 1372 with quotes, 1100 without (272 words in quotes). Methodology The setting I decided to follow was a basic quantitative method using a simple classroom to hand out the questionnaires to all of the N.N.S Students during the last 10 minutes of their English Studies lesson. My reason for choosing this method was because each person could contribute their opinion to our English taboo language and make a comparison with their own, see appendix 1 for an example of the questionnaire that I used in this study. Materials were also simplistic as I wanted to keep things from appearing complicated and stressful for the participants; I handed out a box of pens and pencils and the questionnaires onto separate tables for each of them to decide their preferred writing method and begin the questionnaire once everyone had sat down. I did not have any intention to set a time limit as every participant was different so forcing a time limit could have affected their answers If I had set it for a short amount of time answers may have become basic rather than have any elaboration on their answers. The questionnaire was separated into four separate sections; Definitions, Rating, Opinions and Personal questions (to validate the questionnaire). The reason I thought it best to separate my questionnaire in to sections was to make it look more user-friendly rather than one continuous block of questions. In relation to ethics I knew things would be less difficult as all participants were over the age of 18 therefore gaining permission was not needed and I did not go over any personal boundaries when asking participants questions about the cultural background. Also, the number of participants that filled in my questionnaires were a total of 11, this is because it was difficult to find students other than first year students as they were on tutorial leave although I did manage to get 2 second year students to fill the questionnaire out for me. Receiving their answers were different to those in first year, it was still in a classroom, but it was just the two of them rather than taking part when the first year students did so the experiment took place twice; in the same classroom but at different times. The first section required t hem to define a set of English swear words as best as they could, these words were; Shit, Bollocks, Bastard, Fuck, Wanker, Faggot, Twat, Bitch and Cunt. The second section is where I spotted a problem but this will be explained in the discussion/conclusion, I asked students to rate swear words from a choice of 1-10 (1 being the least offensive and 10 being the worst) in the boxes provided. The final two sections focused primarily on their cultural back ground, where they had come across the English swear words how long they had learnt English for, when they learnt it and whether they thought swear words were more frequent in our language than theirs. Word count: 486 Data analysis/Findings The total number of participants were eleven; though I was not primarily focused on gender I did ask them if they were male or female and the result was 8 females and 4 males; the females appeared to answer the personal questions in more depth whilst the males appeared to answer the definitions in more detail. In relation to the backgrounds of the participants I asked them where did they originate from, the results were; 3 students from France; 2 students from Czech Republic; 2 students from Greece/Cyprus; 1 student from Italy; 1 student from South Korea; 1 student from Luxembourg and 1 other student from Brazil. My questionnaire consisted of 4 sections, each one requiring a different set of answers. The majority of participants provided swear words with a definition and an example. Questionnaire 1 (see appendix 2) gave well thought out answers and examples of sentences along with definitions and if they struggled with the meaning they attempted to make some kind of contribution (alt hough some did just tick the I dont know or pass boxes. An example from Q.1 (Appendix 2) is: Shit Excrement, faeces. Usually attributed to bad things/people. Shit I forgot my hat Bollocks Dont know its mean meaning, but it can be used to describe non-sense or madness. That guys completely bollocks Bastard A very rude/annoying person. Stop blabbering, you bloody bastard Most of the other participants made similar definitions for those three selected words above. Although Questionnaire 3 (see appendix 4) had written down Person without a father when asked to define the word bastard. This shows that they are also aware of another form of definition besides the obvious one used to insult a person who may be rude. Another word that I am glad many (minus questionnaires 2, 5 and 9 : Appendices 3, 6 and 10) managed to define was the word Faggot, most wrote down the definition mean word for a homosexual as it is has only within the past 10/15 years become a popular word in our vocabulary. I make this assumption because most people from England who I have spoken to who are over the age of 30 have not come across the word Faggot much. The first section was considered a success as all participants tried to define words to the best of their knowledge. However it was noticeable to see that the definition for word Twat proved difficult with some being unable to m ake a definition at all, whilst others said it was like another version for some of the previously provided swearwords. The Second section was rating the same words that appeared in the first section. This can be put onto a bar chat to explain how participants rated them. All results for this section have also been created in a tally like form (see appendix 13). So in order to place these words into a bar chat I decided to look at the ranks that the students gave and added them up to see what the total was. To make the bar chat clearer I put the total to a maximum of 90 for each word (as an issue was only 9 words would equal up to 90 if all words were marked as 10). Word Rank (out of 90) Shit 31 Bollocks 31 Bastard 53 Fuck 51 Wanker 53 Faggot 52 Twat 35 Bitch 51 Cunt 82 From the above bar chart is clear to see that cunt was considered the most offensive word by all participants with 82/90 whilst Shit and Bollocks both ended up receiving the lowest rank of 31/90. There were some surprising results for words such as Fuck as it was ranked as a considerably average offensive word along with Bastard, Wanker, Faggot and Bitch; Twat was also ranked quite low down. Unfortunately not many participants answered why they ranked these words with certain numbers apart from questionnaires 1 and 3 who gave a couple of answers for some words, one was in Appendix 2 for Fuck: used so often its almost unoriginal and inoffensive and Appendix 4 answered Not really rude for bollocks and unnecessarily mean for cunt. The next part of section two was to find out where they heard these words, as Id suggested before in the literature review some came across these words when watching films, learnt them from friends or read them in books. Some also said that they are similar to words in their own language; an example of this is from Questionnaire 2 (Appendix 3) who said that the word Bastard was Almost same word in my language and same meaning BÄ tard. In section three I focused on their opinions about taboo language, whether it was more frequent here than in their country and in their own language what was a very offensive taboo (swear) word. Opinions changed between some participants who share the same backgrounds, three participants from France showed different answers; this could be due to what area in France they come from (which I did not ask). Questionnaires 2 and 3 (Appendices 3 and 4) both say that there are more swearwords in their language and that English people swear less whilst questionnaire 4 had the opposite; that English people have more swearwords and use them more often. Although one common ground that these participants had were the same idea answer for the most offensive word in their language; this was Pute/Putain which is the French word for both Bitch and Whore/prostitute. A participant from Luxembourg also used the word Pute when describing what he thought was an offensive word in his language, this shows t hat other cultures may appear to have the same opinion as one another in regards to what is considered to be taboo to them. Other students from different areas like Cyprus and Greece thought that both languages seemed to share the same amount of swear words but thought English people swore more than they did. The same can be said for 2 participants from Czech republic who both shared the same opinion on the most offensive word in their language; Pà ­Ãƒâ€žÃ‚ a/Cunt and ÄŒurà ¡k/Wanker. Although one thought (appendix 8) that swear words in our country and theirs seemed to be the same whilst the other (appendix 9) believe that there are far more words in our language and more frequent use. A student from South Korea was unable to translate her example of an offensive swearword although said it was to do with a Cunt/Slut (See Appendix 10) and that there appears to be the same amount of swearing in her language just as much as ours. All participants have said that they have found themselves using English swearwords since learning them. Every participant in this study think it is important to know wh at certain swearwords in English mean as it saves them from using them without knowing their definition, it allows them to recognize these words when said by other people and also knowing these words helps them find the right situations to use them whilst avoiding the wrong (i.e. in a job interview). The final section was to ask them some personal background questions about their origin and how long theyve known English for. All but one participant (Brazilian student learnt at age 18, see Appendix 12) had begun to learn English between the ages of 6 and 12 and all had learnt English before coming to England. The times each participant has lived in UK varies from 7 months (Cyprus; Appendix 6) to 9 years (France; Appendix 5), with one also living in New Zealand at one point (see Appendix 4). 3328 without quotes 3608 with quotes